PapersFlow Research Brief
Theology and Philosophy of Evil
Research Guide
What is Theology and Philosophy of Evil?
Theology and Philosophy of Evil is the cluster of philosophical and theological inquiries into the problem of evil, encompassing theodicy, divine hiddenness, skeptical theism, original sin, free will defense, divine providence, moral skepticism, evidential arguments, and human suffering.
This field contains 71,570 works with no reported five-year growth rate. It examines how evil and suffering challenge concepts of divine goodness and human morality. Key discussions connect to free will, moral responsibility, and justifications for apparent divine inaction.
Topic Hierarchy
Research Sub-Topics
Theodicy
Philosophers and theologians construct justifications for God's goodness amid evil, including soul-making, best-world, and felix culpa theodicies. Debates evaluate logical compatibility of divine attributes with gratuitous suffering.
Free Will Defense
This defense argues that moral evil results from genuine libertarian free will, necessary for higher goods like love and moral growth. Critics challenge transworld depravity and middle knowledge responses.
Skeptical Theism
Skeptical theists contend humans lack epistemic access to divine reasons, undermining evidential arguments from horrific evils. Responses address noseeum inferences and moral knowledge skepticism.
Divine Hiddenness
Arguments claim nonresistant nonbelief constitutes evidence against God's existence, as a loving deity would ensure receptive awareness. Theists propose skeptical theism, soul-making, or doxastic autonomy replies.
Evidential Problem of Evil
This probabilistic argument holds that gratuitous suffering's probability given theism is low, favoring atheism. Defenses invoke unknown greater goods, eschatological resolution, or Bayesian epistemology.
Why It Matters
Theology and Philosophy of Evil addresses foundational questions in ethics and religion that influence legal, psychological, and social responses to human suffering. Frankfurt (1969) in "Alternate Possibilities and Moral Responsibility" argues that moral responsibility does not require the ability to do otherwise, with 2347 citations, impacting debates on accountability in criminal justice systems where free will defenses are invoked. Parfit (1986) in "Reasons and Persons" explores self-defeating moral theories, cited 4287 times, which informs bioethics decisions on end-of-life care amid suffering. Aristotle's "Nicomachean Ethics" (2010 edition, 3780 citations) provides virtue-based frameworks applied in counseling programs for trauma survivors, linking evil to character formation.
Reading Guide
Where to Start
"Alternate Possibilities and Moral Responsibility" by Harry G. Frankfurt (1969) because it directly engages free will defenses central to the problem of evil with a clear challenge to standard assumptions, cited 2347 times.
Key Papers Explained
Frankfurt (1969) "Alternate Possibilities and Moral Responsibility" establishes that moral responsibility persists without alternate possibilities, foundational for free will defenses against evil. Parfit (1986) "Reasons and Persons" builds on this by examining self-defeating moral theories, cited 4287 times, linking to moral skepticism in theodicy. Aristotle's "Nicomachean Ethics" (2010) provides virtue ethics context for human suffering, with 3780 citations, while Frankfurt and Parfit apply it to modern responsibility debates.
Paper Timeline
Most-cited paper highlighted in red. Papers ordered chronologically.
Advanced Directions
Current discussions likely extend Frankfurt's responsibility principles to skeptical theism and divine hiddenness, given the 71,570 works, though no recent preprints or news specify new frontiers.
Papers at a Glance
| # | Paper | Year | Venue | Citations | Open Access |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | 11. Reasons and Persons | 1986 | — | 4.3K | ✕ |
| 2 | Nicomachean Ethics | 2010 | — | 3.8K | ✕ |
| 3 | Stanford encyclopedia of philosophy | 1998 | Choice Reviews Online | 3.4K | ✕ |
| 4 | LII. An essay towards solving a problem in the doctrine of cha... | 1763 | Philosophical Transact... | 2.8K | ✕ |
| 5 | On Justification | 2006 | Princeton University P... | 2.5K | ✕ |
| 6 | Alternate Possibilities and Moral Responsibility | 1969 | The Journal of Philosophy | 2.3K | ✕ |
| 7 | A History of Western Philosophy. | 1946 | The Philosophical Review | 2.0K | ✕ |
| 8 | Foundations of the Metaphysics of Morals | 2020 | Indiana University Pre... | 1.9K | ✕ |
| 9 | Routledge encyclopedia of philosophy | 1998 | Choice Reviews Online | 1.8K | ✕ |
| 10 | An Inquiry concerning human understanding | 1955 | — | 1.8K | ✕ |
Frequently Asked Questions
What is the free will defense in the philosophy of evil?
The free will defense argues that God permits evil to preserve human free will, necessary for genuine moral choices. Frankfurt (1969) in "Alternate Possibilities and Moral Responsibility" challenges the principle that moral responsibility requires alternate possibilities, showing responsibility holds even without them. This defends divine providence against evidential arguments from evil.
How does skeptical theism relate to the problem of evil?
Skeptical theism posits that humans lack epistemic access to divine reasons, undermining evidential arguments from evil. It counters claims that gratuitous suffering disproves God's existence by questioning our ability to judge divine intentions. This approach appears in discussions tied to divine hiddenness within the 71,570 works.
What role does moral responsibility play in theodicy?
Moral responsibility underpins theodicies justifying evil through human agency. Frankfurt (1969) demonstrates a person can be responsible for actions without alternate possibilities, supporting free will defenses. Parfit (1986) analyzes self-defeating rationality theories relevant to moral skepticism in evil's justification.
What are evidential arguments from evil?
Evidential arguments claim the existence and amount of evil provide probabilistic evidence against an omnibenevolent God. They focus on apparently gratuitous suffering rather than logical inconsistency. Responses include skeptical theism and free will defenses from the field's core discussions.
How does original sin factor into theology of evil?
Original sin posits inherited moral corruption as the root of evil, explaining pervasive human suffering. It supports theodicies linking divine providence to redemption narratives. This theme interconnects with free will and moral skepticism across the 71,570 papers.
What is divine hiddenness in relation to evil?
Divine hiddenness argues God's non-obvious existence permits evil by allowing free rejection of faith. It complements evidential arguments questioning why suffering lacks divine intervention. Theological responses invoke skeptical theism within the problem of evil framework.
Open Research Questions
- ? How can free will defenses fully account for natural evils unrelated to human choices?
- ? Does skeptical theism lead to moral skepticism that undermines ethical judgments on suffering?
- ? Can evidential arguments from the scale of human suffering outweigh probabilistic theodicies?
- ? In what ways does divine hiddenness intensify the logical problem of evil beyond evidential concerns?
- ? How might original sin reconcile with modern views of moral responsibility absent alternate possibilities?
Recent Trends
The field maintains 71,570 works with no five-year growth rate reported, indicating stable interest without acceleration.
Highly cited classics like Parfit's "Reasons and Persons" (4287 citations, 1986) and Frankfurt's "Alternate Possibilities and Moral Responsibility" (2347 citations, 1969) continue dominating, with no recent preprints or news indicating shifts.
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